Scam • April 7, 2023 ∙ 18 min read ∙
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Top 10 biggest frauds in US history [Infographics]

The financial frauds and scandals devastated the United States, leaving a path of destruction in the early 20th century.
Those responsible for defrauding investors and the public often used deceptive accounting practices, Ponzi schemes, and other unethical methods, resulting in significant losses to individuals, companies, and economies.
The top 10 biggest frauds in U.S. history include:
- Enron (2001) – $74 billion
- Tyco International (2002) – $2.2 billion
- Adelphia (2002) – $2.3 billion
- WorldCom (2002) – $11 billion
- HealthSouth (2003) – $2.7 billion
- Refco (2005) – $430 million
- Bernie Madoff (2008) – $65 billion
- Lehman Brothers (2008) – $639 billion
- Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac (2008) – $214.2 billion
- Allen Stanford (2009) – $7 billion
- FTX Crypto Exchange (2022) – $8 billion (Added on 16th May 2023)
Now let’s deep dive into each financial fraud in U.S. history.
1. Enron (2001) – $74 billion
Enron Corporation was an American energy, commodities, and services firm headquartered in Houston, Texas.
It was one of the largest and most successful corporations worldwide, with over 20,000 employees and reported revenues of $101 billion for 2000.
However, in 2001 Enron’s fraudulent accounting practices were exposed, leading to its collapse and billions of dollars in losses for investors and employees.
The Enron scandal involved falsifying financial statements and accounting practices to conceal losses and inflate earnings.
Enron executives, including CEO Kenneth Lay and CFO Andrew Fastow, used off-balance-sheet partnerships to cover debt obligations and overvalued assets.
Enron’s downfall began in August 2001 when former executive Sherron Watkins sent an anonymous letter to CEO Lay warning him about the company’s accounting practices.
The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) launched an investigation, leading to Enron reporting a loss of $618 million for the third quarter of 2001 – prompting its stock price to plummet.
In December 2001, Enron declared bankruptcy – the largest ever seen in U.S. history, with debts totaling $63.4 billion.
The demise of Enron had a devastating effect on financial markets, as investors and employees alike lost billions of dollars.
Following the scandal, several Enron executives, including Lay and Fastow, were charged with fraud, insider trading, and other offenses.
Unfortunately, Lay passed away before sentencing; however, Fastow was found guilty and sentenced to six years.
The Enron scandal ushered in corporate governance and accounting practice changes, such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, which placed stricter restrictions on public companies and their auditors.
Overall, the Enron scandal dealt a devastating blow to corporate America’s reputation and served as an eye-opening reminder of the dangers of corporate greed and the necessity for transparency and accountability in business operations.
2. Tyco International (2002) – $2.2 billion
Tyco International is a multinational company specializing in security systems, fire protection, and other products and services.
In 2002, the company became embroiled in a massive accounting fraud involving its top executives engaging in unethical behavior to deceive investors and inflate their stock prices.
The fraud started when CEO Dennis Kozlowski and CFO Mark Swartz began to exploit their positions of power to enrich themselves and their associates.
They used corporate funds to purchase luxury goods, including artwork, jewelry, and real estate. They also engaged in lavish spending, not in the company’s or its shareholders’ best interest.
Kozlowski and Swartz also engaged in accounting fraud by concealing company losses, inflating revenue, and manipulating earnings reports.
They used fraudulent accounting methods to make Tyco appear more profitable than it was, which caused the company’s stock price to rise, benefitting the executives who held large amounts of Tyco stock.
The fraud was eventually discovered when a whistleblower came forward to report questionable accounting practices at the company.
Tyco’s board of directors launched an investigation, which revealed the extent of the fraud and the illegal activities of Kozlowski and Swartz.
Kozlowski and Swartz were arrested in 2002 and charged with multiple counts of grand theft, securities fraud, and conspiracy.
They were found guilty in 2005 and sentenced to prison. Kozlowski was sentenced to 8 to 25 years in jail, while Swartz was sentenced to 7 to 25 years.
The Tyco scandal resulted in significant financial losses for investors and employees, with Tyco’s stock price plummeting and many employees losing their jobs.
The company was also forced to pay millions of dollars in fines and settlements to various parties, including the SEC and shareholders.
In conclusion, the Tyco International fraud scandal involved the abuse of power by top executives to enrich themselves and engage in fraudulent accounting practices.
The scandal led to significant financial losses and the arrest and conviction of Kozlowski and Swartz.
3. Adelphia (2002) – $2.3 billion
Adelphia Communications Corporation was established in 1952 by John Rigas and his brother Gus.
At that time, it offered cable television services to customers throughout Pennsylvania, New York, and California.
Over time, Adelphia’s success skyrocketed, eventually becoming the fifth-largest cable company in America.
In 2002, it was uncovered that members of the Rigas family had been misusing Adelphia’s funds for personal gain.
Owners of a significant portion of Adelphia’s stock borrowed hundreds of millions to finance private investments such as real estate projects and a professional hockey team.
Also, to misappropriating funds, the Rigas family committed accounting fraud to make their company appear more profitable than it was.
They employed various accounting techniques to conceal losses and inflate revenue streams, such as understating expenses, overstating assets, and falsifying earnings reports.
In early 2002, Adelphia’s auditors began to voice concerns about its accounting practices, spurring an internal investigation.
This uncovering of fraud and illegal activities by the Rigas family proved so significant that the company was ultimately forced to file for bankruptcy protection.
The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) investigated Adelphia, leading to criminal charges against John Rigas, his two sons, and several other executives.
These charges included conspiracy to commit securities fraud, wire fraud, bank fraud, and securities fraud.
In 2004, the Rigas family went on trial and were found guilty of multiple counts of fraud and conspiracy.
John Rigas received 15 years in prison, while his son Timothy received a 20-year sentence.
As part of their sentencing agreement, the Rigas family was ordered to pay Adelphia shareholders over $1.5 billion in restitution.
The Adelphia fraud scandal devastated cable television and investors, costing billions of dollars in losses and leading to the demise of one of America’s largest cable companies.
This fraud also raised public awareness about corporate fraud and highlighted the need for tighter oversight and regulation within financial services.
4. WorldCom (2002) – $11 billion
The WorldCom fraud was a massive financial scandal that had far-reaching implications for the telecommunications industry and beyond.
The company’s CEO, Bernard Ebbers, was a charismatic leader widely admired by investors and employees.
However, it was revealed that he had been involved in a massive accounting fraud involving billions of dollars in inflated earnings.
The fraud at WorldCom began in the late 1990s when the company was struggling to meet Wall Street expectations for its earnings.
To address this problem, Ebbers and CFO Scott Sullivan devised a scheme to artificially manipulate the company’s accounting records to inflate its earnings.
They began to move expenses from the income statement to the balance sheet, effectively hiding the costs and making it appear as though the company was more profitable than it was.
The scheme was successful initially, and the company’s stock price soared. However, as the company’s financial situation began to deteriorate, the fraud began to unravel.
In 2002, the company was forced to disclose that it had inflated its earnings by $3.8 billion over the previous two years.
The revelation of the fraud had profound consequences for WorldCom and the telecommunications industry. The company was forced to file for bankruptcy, and thousands lost their jobs.
The scandal also shook investor confidence in the telecommunications industry, and many other companies in the sector saw their stock prices decline sharply in the aftermath of the revelations.
The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) investigated the company’s accounting practices after the scandal. This investigation eventually led to the arrests of both Ebbers and Sullivan.
Sullivan cooperated with prosecutors and pleaded guilty to his role in the fraud, receiving a five-year prison sentence.
Ebbers, however, maintained his innocence and was ultimately found guilty on nine counts of securities fraud, conspiracy, and making false filings with the SEC.
He was sentenced to 25 years in prison and ordered to pay $11 billion in restitution, although this amount was later reduced to $5.5 billion on appeal.
WorldCom scandal was a landmark case in the history of corporate misconduct, and it led to significant changes in how the financial industry is regulated.
5. HealthSouth (2003) – $2.7 billion
The HealthSouth fraud was a major accounting scandal that rocked the healthcare industry in the early 2000s.
The company was a leading outpatient surgery, diagnostic imaging, and rehabilitation provider in 26 states and Puerto Rico.
However, it was revealed that the company’s financial statements had been massively overstated and that the CEO, Richard Scrushy, had been involved in massive accounting fraud.
The fraud at HealthSouth began in the late 1990s when the company started to experience financial difficulties.
To address these problems, Scrushy manipulated the company’s financial statements to inflate its earnings and hide its losses.
He instructed the finance team to fabricate earnings reports and move expenses off the income statement and onto the balance sheet, where they would not be immediately visible.
The scheme was successful initially, and the company’s stock price soared. However, as the company’s financial situation began to deteriorate, the fraud began to unravel.
In March 2003, the SEC it has investigated the company’s accounting practices. In June of that year, HealthSouth announced that it would restate its financial statements for the previous five years.
The revelation of the fraud had profound consequences for HealthSouth and the healthcare industry. The company’s stock price plummeted, and Scrushy was forced to resign as CEO.
In November 2003, he was indicted on 85 counts of fraud, money laundering, obstruction of justice, and other charges.
The trial of Scrushy was a significant media event, lasting for several months.
During the trial, prosecutors showed that Scrushy had orchestrated the fraud and pressured his subordinates to follow it.
The defense argued that Scrushy had been unaware of the scam and had been the victim of a conspiracy.
Ultimately, the jury found Scrushy not guilty on all counts, a verdict widely criticized as a miscarriage of justice. However, Scrushy’s legal troubles were far from over.
In 2004, he was charged with violating federal securities laws, and in 2006, he was found liable for $2.9 billion in damages in a civil suit brought by shareholders.
The HealthSouth fraud was a landmark case in the history of corporate misconduct, and it helped to spur a wave of reforms in the healthcare industry.
It also led to increased scrutiny of the healthcare industry and a renewed focus on preventing financial fraud and abuse.
6. Refco (2005) – $430 million
Refco was a financial services firm founded in 1969 and specialized in providing brokerage and clearing services for commodities and futures markets.
The company became one of the largest futures brokers in the world, with operations in North America, Europe, and Asia.
However, in 2005, it was revealed that Refco had been engaged in fraudulent activity that resulted in approximately $430 million in losses.
The fraud was centered on a complex scheme that involved hiding bad debts and losses from investors by creating a series of off-balance-sheet entities.
One of the primary methods used by Refco to carry out the fraud was using a subsidiary company called Refco Group Holdings Inc. (RGHI).
RGHI was used to hide bad debts and losses from investors by transferring them off Refco’s balance sheet and onto RGHI’s.
This was done to make Refco’s financial statements appear more robust than they were.
Another method used by Refco was the use of related party transactions. The company made loans to related parties not disclosed in its financial statements.
In some cases, Refco’s executives owned or controlled these associated parties.
The fraud was uncovered in October 2005, after Refco’s initial public offering was halted and the company declared bankruptcy.
Refco’s CEO, Phillip R. Bennett, was arrested and charged with securities fraud, wire fraud, and money laundering.
He eventually pleaded guilty to the charges and was sentenced to 16 years.
Refco fraud is an example of the dangers of complex financial structures and the importance of transparency in financial reporting.
It also highlights the need for proper oversight and regulation of financial firms to prevent fraudulent activities.
7. Bernie Madoff (2008) – $65 billion
Bernie Madoff was a prominent Wall Street financier arrested and charged with running a Ponzi scheme that resulted in approximately $65 billion in losses.
A Ponzi scheme is a fraudulent investment scheme where returns are paid to earlier investors using the capital of newer investors rather than from actual profits generated by the investment.
Madoff’s scheme was carried out through his investment firm, Bernard L. Madoff Investment Securities LLC, which he founded in 1960.
Over several decades, Madoff’s firm attracted many investors, including individuals, institutional investors, and charities.
Madoff promised high and steady returns to his investors, but instead, he used the funds from newer investors to pay off earlier investors and fund his lavish lifestyle.
One of the critical factors that allowed Madoff’s scheme to continue for so long was the lack of transparency and oversight.
Madoff was able to provide false financial statements to his investors, auditors, and regulators, which allowed him to cover up the fraud for many years.
The scheme eventually unraveled in 2008 when Madoff could not meet the demands of his investors, who wanted to withdraw their investments due to the financial crisis.
Madoff was arrested and charged with securities fraud, money laundering, and perjury. He eventually pleaded guilty to the charges and was sentenced to 150 years.
The Madoff scandal is one of the largest financial frauds in history and has profoundly impacted the investment industry.
It has highlighted the importance of transparency, due diligence, and regulatory oversight in the financial markets.
The scandal has also led to increased scrutiny and regulation of the investment industry to prevent similar fraudulent activities from occurring in the future.
8. Lehman Brothers (2008) – $639 billion
Lehman Brothers was a central investment bank and financial services firm that experienced one of the most significant bankruptcies in U.S. history.
The firm’s collapse in 2008 was a turning point in the financial crisis and had substantial repercussions throughout the financial industry.
Lehman Brothers had $639 billion in assets at its collapse, making it the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history.
The company had been struggling for months, holding many risky mortgage-backed securities and borrowing heavily to finance its operations.
As the housing market began declining in 2007, Lehman Brothers’ financial situation deteriorated rapidly, and the firm’s losses on these securities grew.
Despite efforts to raise capital and improve its financial position, the firm could not meet its obligations, and on September 15, 2008, Lehman Brothers filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.
The collapse of Lehman Brothers had a ripple effect throughout the financial industry and contributed to the global financial crisis.
The firm’s bankruptcy triggered a liquidity crisis, as banks became reluctant to lend money to each other, and the credit markets froze.
The U.S. government intervened with a massive bailout package to prevent a total collapse of the financial system.
In conclusion, the Lehman Brothers’ bankruptcy was a significant event in the history of finance. It highlighted the dangers of excessive risk-taking and the need for regulatory oversight in the financial industry.
9. Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac (2008) – $214.2 billion
Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac are two of the largest financial institutions in the United States.
They were created by the U.S. Congress in the late 1960s to provide liquidity to the mortgage market and to make homeownership more affordable.
The two companies purchase mortgage loans from banks, bundle them into securities, and then sell them to investors.
They guarantee the underlying mortgages against default and collect bank fees for their services.
In 2008, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac were at the center of a massive financial scandal that shook the U.S. housing market and the global financial system.
The two companies were accused of engaging in fraudulent accounting practices and misrepresenting their financial positions to investors and the public.
Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac’s fraud centered on their subprime mortgage treatment.
Subprime mortgages are loans extended to borrowers with lower credit scores or less stable employment histories.
These loans are riskier than prime mortgages, developed for borrowers with higher credit scores and more stable employment histories.
In the years leading up to the 2008 financial crisis, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac became significant buyers of subprime mortgages.
They purchased these mortgages from banks and bundled them into securities, which they sold to investors.
Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac profited from these investments, and their executives received huge bonuses.
However, the subprime mortgages began to default alarmingly, and the securities backed by these mortgages became toxic.
Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac’s exposure to these securities threatened their solvency, and the U.S. government was forced to intervene to prevent their collapse.
In September 2008, the U.S. government placed Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac under conservatorship, effectively taking control of the two companies.
The U.S. Treasury Department injected billions of dollars into the companies to keep them afloat.
In exchange, the government received preferred stock in the companies and the right to purchase common stock later.
The fraud at Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac was characterized by aggressive accounting practices that artificially inflated their earnings and misstated their financial positions.
The two companies failed to account for the risks associated with their subprime mortgage investments and understated their exposure to these risky securities.
The fraud at Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac resulted in massive losses for investors and taxpayers.
The U.S. government estimated that the two companies cost taxpayers over $200 billion in bailout funds.
The collapse of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac contributed to the severity of the 2008 financial crisis, which caused trillions of dollars in losses across the global financial system.
The fraud at Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac was a major scandal with far-reaching consequences.
No one was arrested for the accounting fraud at Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac.
The federal government took over the companies in 2008, and a new CEO was appointed to oversee the companies’ operations.
The government also launched an investigation into the accounting practices at the companies and reached settlements with some of the executives involved in the fraud.
However, no criminal charges were filed against any of the executives.
The two companies engaged in aggressive accounting practices that artificially inflated their earnings and misstated their financial positions.
The collapse of the two companies cost taxpayers billions of dollars and contributed to the severity of the 2008 financial crisis.
10. Allen Stanford (2009) – $7 billion
Allen Stanford was a billionaire financier who ran a Ponzi scheme that defrauded investors of $7 billion.
Stanford operated a series of financial companies, including the Stanford International Bank (SIB), which he used to lure in investors with promises of high returns on investments in certificates of deposit (CDs).
Investors were told their money was invested in safe, conservative assets.
Still, Stanford used the money to fund his lavish lifestyle, including buying mansions, yachts, and private jets.
He also used the money to fund his other business ventures and to repay earlier investors.
Stanford’s scheme was uncovered in 2009 when the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) charged him with fraud and froze his assets.
The SEC accused Stanford of running a “massive Ponzi scheme” and misleading investors about the safety and returns of their investments.
After his arrest, Stanford faced a series of legal battles, including a criminal trial in 2012, where he was found guilty of 13 counts of fraud, conspiracy, and obstruction of justice. He was sentenced to 110 years in prison, which he is currently serving.
The fallout from the Stanford fraud was significant, with many investors losing their life savings.
The case also raised questions about the oversight of financial regulators, as Stanford had been able to operate his scheme for years without being caught.
In response, the SEC and other regulatory bodies implemented new rules and regulations to better protect investors from fraud and misconduct in the financial industry.
11. FTX Crypto Exchange (2022) – $8 billion
In a stunning turn of events, the FTX Crypto Exchange has been exposed to a massive $8 billion fraud scandal.
Once a prominent player in the cryptocurrency market, FTX faced financial troubles as the value of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies plummeted.
While other platforms closed their doors, FTX continued to operate, but behind the scenes, a web of deceit was unraveling.
It was revealed that FTX’s sister company, Alameda Research, relied heavily on FTX’s digital token FTT, and a leaked balance sheet exposed the shocking truth.
FTX was drowning in liabilities of $9 billion, with assets totaling a mere $900 million.
The balance sheet further exposed that much of Alameda’s funding came from deposits made by FTX customers.
As the cracks widened, FTX’s founder, Sam Bankman-Fried, faced a barrage of accusations.
He allegedly misused company funds for personal gain, indulging in extravagant purchases and political donations.
Desperate to cover the growing gap between what was owed and what could be paid, Bankman-Fried ordered the sale of assets, but it was futile.
FTX’s collapse was inevitable. Bankman-Fried was arrested on money laundering, wire fraud, campaign finance violations, and securities fraud.
The ramifications of this scandal have reverberated throughout the cryptocurrency industry, shedding light on the risks of unregulated exchanges and demanding stricter oversight.
Outraged by the deception, investors have initiated a class-action lawsuit against FTX and its celebrity endorsers, alleging false representation and deceptive conduct.
As investigations continue and the full extent of the fraud is uncovered, the FTX Crypto Exchange is a stark reminder of the urgent need for transparency and accountability in the ever-evolving world of digital currencies.
Frequently Answered Questions
- Q. What is considered to be the largest financial fraud in US history?
Answer: Bernie Madoff’s Ponzi scheme in 2008, estimated at an estimated loss of $65 billion, stands as the greatest. - Q. What were the consequences of the largest financial frauds in the US?
Answer: The economic toll from these crimes was severe, including losses to investors, collapsed companies, job losses, and financial damage. In some cases, those responsible were prosecuted and received prison sentences. - Q. How do these frauds impact the stock market?
Answer: Unfortunately, these incidents can have significant negative repercussions for investors as they lose faith and sell their shares, leading to lower prices. Furthermore, disclosure of fraud may trigger regulatory investigations or lawsuits, further dampening investor enthusiasm and confidence in the market. - Q. What are the common elements of financial fraud?
Answer: Common elements include an excessive focus on profit, lack of internal controls, collaboration among executives, and fraudulent accounting practices. - Q. How can investors protect themselves from financial fraud?
Answer: To protect themselves from such scams, investors should conduct proper due diligence on investment opportunities, verify companies have strong internal controls and independent audits, and be wary of investment opportunities offering excessively high returns. - Q. How are financial frauds investigated and prosecuted?
Answer: Financial fraud is investigated by regulatory bodies such as the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) or the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Once a scam has been identified, prosecutors can file criminal charges against those responsible. - Q. How long do investigations into financial fraud typically take?
Answer: Investigating financial fraud can take considerable time, depending on the complexity and evidence needed for collection. In some cases, investigations may drag on for several years before charges are filed. - Q. What are the penalties for financial fraud?
Answer: Financial fraud carries a range of potential punishments, from fines and imprisonment to restitution to victims. Penalties may vary depending on how severe and widespread the offense is. - Q. How can companies prevent financial fraud within their organizations?
Answer: Companies can prevent financial fraud by implementing strong internal controls, training employees on fraud prevention tactics, conducting regular audits, and encouraging ethical behavior. - Q. How can the government prevent financial fraud?
Answer: To combat financial fraud, governments can strengthen regulations and oversight, increase penalties for those found guilty, and allocate adequate resources to regulatory organizations like the SEC or FBI.
How to eliminate the risk of encountering fraudulent business?
While it’s not possible to eliminate the risk of encountering fraudulent companies or individuals, there are some steps that individuals and organizations can take to minimize their exposure to financial fraud:
- Do your due diligence: Before investing in a company, conducting business with a new partner, or giving money to a charity, conduct a thorough background check. This can include researching the company’s history, reviewing financial statements, and checking the credentials of key executives.
- Attention to warning signs: Look for red flags such as inconsistent financial reports, unexplained transactions, and excessive secrecy. Also, be wary of promises of unusually high returns or pressure to invest quickly.
- Be skeptical: Always approach any investment or business opportunity with a healthy dose of skepticism. Don’t let your emotions cloud your judgment; don’t be afraid to ask questions or seek professional advice.
- Use reputable financial institutions: When investing or depositing funds, use well-established financial institutions with a strong reputation for integrity and transparency.
- Report suspected fraud: If you suspect that you’ve encountered financial fraud or scams, report it to the appropriate authorities, such as the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), or the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN).
Following the above steps can help individuals and organizations protect themselves from financial fraud and scams.
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